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쿠빌라이수도,과연 현 북경이였는가? | |||
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현재의 북경 맞습니다. Cambula(C)가 아니라 Cambaluc가 맞습니다. 이미지우측의 설명은 이탈리아어입니다. 대략을 풀어보니, Cambaluc, 현재의 Beijing, Chataio의 수도, Qubilai Kan의 거주지라는 말입니다. 관련 Wikepedia의 내용을 올립니다. 쉬운 말이라 특별히 번역하진 않겠습니다. 마르코폴로가 정말로 중국수도까지 여행했을까? 의문을 제시한 글도 올립니다. ============================================================================= Historical capital of China Beijing (formerly Anglicized as Peking and briefly Peiping) was and has been the capital of various Chinese governments including (sorted chronologically): - State of Yan in Spring and Autumn Period: called Ji (薊 Jì) - Liao Dynasty, as a secondary capital: called Yanjing (燕京 Yānjīng "capital of Yan") - Jin Dynasty (1115-1234) from Jin Shi Zong until 1220s (1217?): called Zhongdu (中都 Zhōngdū "central capital") - Yuan Dynasty: Khanbalik (Mongolian: the Khan's city); translated to Chinese as Dàdū (大都 "great capital"). This was reported as Cambaluc by Marco Polo. - Ming Dynasty since Yongle Emperor of China: called Jīngshī (京師 "capital") - Qing Dynasty since the fall of Ming in 1644. - The Beiyang Government of the Republic of China. - the current capital of the People's Republic of China Cathay Cathay is the name that was given to northern China by Marco Polo. He referred to southern China as Manji. The name is an Anglicized version of the word Khitan, who were a tribe ruling predominantly in Northern China during Polo's visits. Etymlogical Progression Below is a diagram showing the progression from Khitan to Cathay as the word travelled eastward: Uygur (Western China): Hyty Mongolian/Classic Mongolian: Hyatad(Хятад)/ Kitad Kazan Tatar (Central Russia): Qıtay Russian: Kitai (Китай) Medieval Latin: Cataya, Kitai English: Cathay Manji Manji (from Chinese Manzi, "southern barbarians") was also the name Marco Polo used to refer to southern China, that is, that part of China that had recently been conquered by Kublai Khan. See China in world languages. Khitan The Khitan, in Chinese Qidan (契丹 Pinyin: Qìdān), were an ethnic group which dominated much of Manchuria and was classified in Chinese history as one of the Tungus ethnic groups (東胡族 dōng hú zú). They established the Liao dynasty in 907, which was then conquered in 1125 by the Jin dynasty of the Jurchen. There is no clear evidence of any descendant ethnic groups of the Khitan in modern-day Northeast China. Although a number of the nobility of the Liao dynasty escaped the area westwards towards Turkestan, establishing the short-lived Kara-Khitan or Western Liao dynasty, they were in turn absorbed by the local Turkish and Iranic populations and left no influence of themselves. As the Khitan language is still almost completely illegible, it is difficult to create a detailed history of their movements. Ancestors of the Khitan were the Yuwen clan of the Xianbei, an ethnic group situated in the area covered by the modern Liaoning and Jilin provinces. After their regime was conquered by the Murong clan, the remnants scattered in the modern-day Inner Mongolia and mixed there with the original Mongolic population. They had been identified as a distinct ethnic group since paying tribute to the Northern Wei Dynasty in mid 6th century. The Khitan were known as خطا in Arabic (Khata) and are mentioned by Muslim chroniclers as they initially fought with Muslims and later converted to Islam. It is interesting to notice that this name was the origin for Kitai, the Russian word for China, the English word Cathay, as well as an archaic word in Portuguese, Catai. Marco Polo Marco Polo (15 September 1254 - 8 January 1324) was a Venetian trader and explorer who, together with his father and uncle, was one of the first Westerners to travel the Silk Road to China (which he called Cathay) and visited the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, Kubilai Khan (grandson of Genghis Khan). His travels are written down in Il Milione ("The Milione", from Polo's family nickname Emilione, or The Travels of Marco Polo). Marco Polo is known as one of the world's greatest explorers — some skeptics see him as the world's greatest storyteller. He told many stories to Kublai Khan. The Polos lived in China for seventeen years before returning to Venice. After his return, in a sea battle between Venice and Genoa, Marco was captured and taken to prison, where he dictated to Rustichello da Pisa the book Il Milione about his travels. The first voyage The Polo family had explorers other than Marco. His father Niccolò (also Nicolò in Venetian) and his uncle Maffeo (also Maffio) were prosperous merchants in the East trade. The two merchants set out to Asia in 1255, reached China in 1266, arriving at Khanbaliq (now Beijing). They returned from China as Kublai Khan's envoys with a letter for the Pope asking to be sent educated people to teach in his empire, to inform the Mongols about their way of life. There is a tradition that the Polo family originated from the island of Korčula in today's Croatia (then known as Curzola) in the Adriatic Sea. It is considered dubious as there is some factual evidence supporting these claims, and some evidence contrary to it, with no complete records that would help ascertain the truth. The city of Korčula still maintains an old house in which Marco was said to have been born. Regardless, the Polos gained prominence in Venice and are historically recorded as Venetians. The second voyage Maffeo and Niccolò Polo set out on a second journey, with the Pope's response to Kublai Khan, in 1271. This time Niccolò took his son Marco. Soon afterwards Marco became the Khan's emissary. In his seventeen years of service to the Khan, Marco Polo became acquainted with the vast regions of China and with numerous achievements of Chinese civilization, many of which were more advanced than similar contemporary European developments Il Milione On their return from China in 1295, the family settled in Venice where they became a sensation and attracted crowds of listeners, who had difficulties in believing their reports of distant China. Since they did not believe him, Marco Polo invited them all to dinner one night during which the Polos dressed in the simple clothes of a peasant in China. Shortly before the crowds ate, the Polos opened their pockets to reveal hundreds of rubies and other jewels which they had received in Asia. Though they were much impressed, the people of Venice still doubted the Polos. His restless spirit drove Marco Polo to take part in the naval battle of Curzola between Genoa and Venice in 1298. He was captured by and spent the few months of his imprisonment dictating a detailed account of his travels in the then-unknown parts of the Far East. His book, Il Milione ("The Million"; known in English as The Travels of Marco Polo) was written in the Provençal language and was soon translated into many European languages. The original is lost and we have several often-conflicting versions of the translations. The book became an instant success — quite an achievement in a time when printing was not known in Europe. Did the trip really take place? On his deathbed, a priest begged Marco to confess that he had lied in his stories. Marco refused, insisting, "I have not told half of what I saw!" While most historians believe that Marco Polo did indeed reach China, in recent times some have proposed that he did not get that far, and only retold information he had heard from others. Those skeptics point out that, among other omissions, his account fails to mention Chinese writing, chopsticks, tea, foot binding, or the Great Wall. Also, Chinese records of the time do not mention him, despite the fact that he claimed to have served as a special emissary for Kublai Khan—which is puzzling, given the careful record-keeping in China at that time. On the other hand, Marco describes other aspects of Far Eastern life in much detail: paper money, the Grand Canal, the structure of a Mongol army, tigers, the Imperial postal system. He also refers to Japan by its Chinese name "Zipang" or Cipangu. This is usually considered the first mention of Japan in Western literature. However, it is possible that Marco heard of these things from Arab silk road traders; trade between the Middle East and Far East was flourishing and travellers are often happy to retell stories of their ventures in great detail. Marco Polo is also believed to have described a bridge that was the site of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, a battle that marked the beginning of the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945). In his defense, much of what he did not mention is circumstantial, and there are no arguments today that refute any of the descriptions that he did write about Historical impact Although the Polos were by no means the first Europeans to reach China overland (see for example Giovanni da Pian del Carpini), thanks to Marco's book their trip was the first to be widely known, and the best-documented until then. Legend has it that Marco Polo introduced to Italy some products from China, including ice cream, pizza, the piñata and pasta, especially spaghetti. However, these legends are highly dubious — for instance, there is evidence that pasta was known in Italy since antiquity. The airport in Venice is named Marco Polo International Airport. See also the Marcopolo satellites. The travels of Marco Polo are given an extended fantasy treatment in the Irish writer Donn Byrne's Mesuser Marco Polo. He also appears as the pivotal character in Italo Calvino's novel Invisible Cities. The name Marco Polo was also given to a children's game (Marco Polo), a story in the science fiction series Doctor Who (Marco Polo) and a three-masted clipper ship built in Saint John, New Brunswick, in 1851. The fastest ship of her day, Marco Polo was the first ship to sail around the world in under six months. Several ships of the Italian navy were named Marco Polo. Marco Polo's Description of the World (http://www.museumofhoaxes.com/polo.html) - from Frances Wood's book Did Marco Polo Go to China? Marco Polo's Description of the World Marco Polo's famous Description of the World was written around 1298. It was Polo's account of the many years he had spent in China. According to the book's prologue, Marco Polo first travelled to China in 1271 with his father and uncle who were both merchants. While in China, he met the great ruler, Qubilai Khan, and so impressed him that the Khan made Marco his special emissary, sending him on missions throughout the various far-flung provinces of China. Marco Polo finally returned to Venice with his family in 1295. He wrote the account of his travels in 1298 while imprisoned in Genoa (or rather, he described his travels to a French writer named Rustichello who wrote the actual book for him). Marco Polo's book became enormously influential and served in Europe as one of the primary sources of information about the Orient for many centuries. Christopher Columbus, for instance, took the book with him on his fateful voyage to the Americas. It also inspired a number of legends, such as the idea that Marco Polo brought the secrets of spaghetti and ice cream with him back from China (he didn't). Scholars now suspect, however, that Marco Polo never went to China. The argument for this case has been laid out by Frances Wood in her book Did Marco Polo Go to China? The basic argument against Marco Polo involves a set of telling omissions. First of all, no reference has ever been found in Chinese archives to an Italian visitor like Marco Polo, despite the fact that China's bureaucrats kept numerous forms of documentation and recorded the presence of many other westerners. If Marco Polo really did serve as a special emissary to the Great Khan, it seems unusual that his presence would never have been noted. Second of all, Polo's account omits many details about Chinese culture that seemed very important to almost all later European travellers. For instance, Wood notes Polo's "apparent failure to pick up even a few Chinese or Mongol place-names in his seventeen-year stay in China." Nor does he ever mention the Chinese style of writing, despite the dramatic difference between Chinese script and the Roman alphabet. Marco Polo does not mention seeing woodblock printing, which was then unknown in Europe. He never mentions the Chinese custom of drinking tea (also unknown in Europe at that time), despite the fact that he discusses varieties of Chinese wine. He never mentions the practice of foot-binding, even though this custom fascinated all other Europeans who travelled to China. He never mentions the use of chopsticks; and finally, he fails to mention the Great Wall of China. Marco Polo did, however, identify some important features of Chinese society. For instance, he described porcelain, the use of coal, and the use of paper money—all unknown to Europeans in the thirteenth century. Nevertheless, it is still hard to imagine that someone could actually go to China and manage to miss all the details that he missed. Wood suggests that Marco Polo probably never travelled further than his family's trading posts on the Black Sea, but that he had access to Persian or Arabic guidebooks to China from which he was able to piece together his account of China. He probably wrote his account in response to a growing demand for geographies during the late thirteenth century. References/Further Reading: Wood, Frances. Did Marco Polo Go to China? Westview Press. 1995. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- target=_blank>http://40.1911encyclopedia.org/C/CA/CAMBALUC.htm http://www.sapere.it/tca/minisite/geografia/mondi_carta/id_o91.html (지도 있는 곳) target=_blank>http://www.answers.com/topic/historical-capital-of-china target=_blank>http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambaluc http://www.gardenvisit.com/got/14/marco_polo.htm 참조하십시오 |
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[8129 - 서양고지도,새로운 북경위치] 글을 보면 알 수 있듯이, 쿠빌라이 수도는 섬서성에 있지만, 하북성의 북경과 서로 연관성이 없습니다 즉, 현재 하북성의 북경(北京)은 연경(燕京)이 될 수 없는 근거를 보고 있는 셈입니다 ※ 섬서성 - 연경 : 당시 원나라의 수도) |
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